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The Baby Formula: The Economics of Births to Married and Unmarried Adolescents Births to mothers in their teens, nowadays considered further evidence of the risks associated with the breakdown of the traditional family structure, is actually a practice deeply rooted in the economic realities of life in the rural south. Success in the rural economy that dominated Mississippi until recent years required good land, good weather, good luck- and large families. Large and small landholders alike required a sufficient labor pool. Neither the production of great wealth nor the attainment of mere self-sufficiency could be achieved without a readily available, affordable work force. Even before the lure of industrial jobs created a scarcity of farm labor, employees were often home grown. In recognition of the important role children played in maintaining the family's economic base, planting and harvesting breaks remained on some school district calendars as recently as the late 1960's. Motherhood was accordingly elevated to a prominent role in the rural south. Women started childbearing early, usually at 14 or 15 years of age, with intentions of having a large family.
Although passionate about carrying out their motherly duties, women who gave birth at a young age faced many health risks. Certain health problems found in rural areas in the past remain prevalent today - lack of access to medical care chief among them. Died in childbirth can be noted with frequency in the genealogy of southern families. Also common was the marriage of widowers to a second young bride who then produced another set of children to help meet the family's labor need. Just as the great value placed on family and the virtues of motherhood carried over to the post-agricultural economy, so did the practice of teens bearing children. In fact, the age of consent in Mississippi remained 14 until 1998 when it was raised to 16 by legislative action. Mississippi vital statistics for 1997 reported one thirteen-year-old bride, ten fourteen-year-old brides, and 95 fifteen-year-old brides. In all, 792 of the 2,697 women who were married in their teens were under 18 years of age.2 In contrast to the economic benefit derived from births to adolescent mothers in earlier days, these births now cost the taxpayers of Mississippi untold millions of dollars annually. Paying the price The acceptance accorded births to married teens has no doubt contributed to a lack of close examination of the risks to young mothers and their children, regardless of the mother's marital status. One of every five babies (21.1%) born in Mississippi in 1997 was born to an adolescent mother.3 Of these 8575 births, 2162 (25.2%) were to teens who had previous live births.4 Some of the risk factors of bearing children at a young age when it was an economic necessity have carried over to the 21st Century. The younger the mother, the greater the likelihood that she and her baby will experience health complications, primarily due to inadequate prenatal care, poor nutrition, and other lifestyle factors.5 Complications of adolescent pregnancy include babies with an abnormally low birth-weight, pregnancy-induced hypertension, anemia, sexually transmitted diseases and pre-term labor and delivery.6 Although data detailing complications of pregnancy are not recorded by age, of the total number of mothers giving birth in Mississippi in 1997, 1007 were reported with anemia and 2420 with hypertension associated with pregnancy.7 Children born to adolescent mothers are more likely to be low birth-weight babies8, which, in turn, increases the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), vision and hearing loss, chronic respiratory problems, mental retardation, mental illness and cerebral palsy.9 Low birth-weight babies are also more likely to later be diagnosed with dyslexia or hyperactivity.10 In addition to these health and developmental disadvantages, children born to adolescent mothers are also more likely to be neglected and abused.11 In 1997, 12.1 percent of the children born to adolescent mothers in Mississippi were low birth-weight and 17.7 percent were pre-term.12 Because they are less likely to receive the level of medical care of children born to older mothers, children of adolescent mothers have an increased incidence of health problems.13 "Many [young adolescent mothers] are not ready for the emotional, psychological and financial responsibilities and challenges of parenthood."14 Due to their low income, or lack thereof, most adolescents who give birth cannot afford medical care for their children. Due to increased reliance on public subsidy, cost of the eventual medical care provided children born to adolescent mothers is 20 percent more than the cost of care for children who have older mothers.15 Inadequate prenatal care was cited in 388 (4.5%) of the 8575 births to adolescent mothers reported in 1997.16 Adolescent mothers tend to be lower academic achievers, more often absent from school, and have lower expectations for their futures than their non-parenting peers.17 Children of adolescent mothers do not perform as well as children of older mothers on tests of cognitive development and are more likely to drop out of school than other children.18 These behaviors are linked to the probability that daughters of mothers who began childbearing before age 18 are themselves more likely to bear children during adolescence.19 In 1997, 16.4 percent of all Mississippi births were to mothers with 11 or less years of education, one-third (33.6%) had only 12 years.20 The sons of adolescent mothers account for 10.3 percent of the adult incarceration rate as compared to 3.8 percent for the sons of 20 -21 year old mothers.21 Of the 23,597 juvenile dispositions in Mississippi courts in 1997, of which 16,860 were male, 78 percent (18,345) of the juveniles live in single parent families.22 Aside from the higher probability of dropping out of school, adolescent mothers and their children face other negative circumstances. The employment levels and earnings of adolescent mothers are lower than those of older mothers, and unmarried young mothers are three times more likely to receive cash benefits (currently provided under TANF).23 Mississippi spent $434,148,091 towards the health, nutritional and income needs of families started by teens through AFDCi (TANFii), Food Stamps, Medicaid, and WICiii payments in FYiv 1995, which is the most recent year for which an aggregate sum is available.24 Adolescent fathers also experience consequences. As an average, adolescent fathers finish 11.3 years of school, compared to older fathers who finish an average of 12.7 years. These young fathers are also more likely to have lower salaries than older fathers.25 While by age 19 the percentage of adolescent grooms is almost two-thirds (57.4%) the number of adolescent brides, the number of grooms under 18 is equal to only 17.4 percent of the number of brides in this age group.26 Reducing the cost While the most frequently cited cost calculation is the state's spending on income supports,27 it is the hidden costs of adolescent childbearing that strains the state's limited resources. The preceding review of research and data identifies consequences of adolescent childbearing as reflected in increased state spending on incarceration, special and remedial education, adult literacy, and health care. Additionally, there is the incalculable cost of lost revenue due to the adverse impact these circumstances have on the quality of the workforce. Clearly, any effort to produce a better educated workforce with resulting increased employment opportunity must include strategies that reduce the impact of adolescent parenting on young parents and their children. Five key elements are required for a broad-based strategic plan to reduce costs of adolescent childbearing: Make affordable prenatal care available to all pregnant women. No-cost or low-cost prenatal care available at times and locations not in conflict with school and work responsibilities will improve the health of both mother and child. Make preventive health care accessible and affordable for all children. School nurses providing routine well care can reduce the health risks of adolescence - anemia resulting from a combination of poor nutritional practices and the onset of menstruation, for example. Support the optimum development of low birth-weight babies. High quality intervention with a tested, pediatric-model parenting education program that provides parents the information needed to create a nurturing, stimulating environment reduces the developmental lags associated with low birth-weight. Keep teen mothers and fathers enrolled in school. Twin generational programsv give adolescent parents the education needed to maximize earning potential, offer their children access to an enriched learning environment, and provide the opportunity to teach parenting skills. Offer parenting skill development classes to all high school students. In-school parenting skill development classes ensure students graduate from high school prepared for the most important job many will ever have - parenting. Addressing the bottom line The most obvious way to reduce the cost of births to adolescents is to reduce adolescent sexual activity. However, even if by some circumstance, adolescent childbearing disappeared overnight, it would take the lifespan of an entire generation - 70 or more years - to improve outcomes for children born today and eliminate the ultimate economic impact. Smart money management requires a comprehensive investment strategy that incorporates efforts to control cost through both prevention and intervention. Resources In its role as a broker of proven program models, the Mississippi Forum on Children and Families provides training and technical assistance to individuals, agencies and organizations interested in implementing a comprehensive approach to the problem of adolescent pregnancy. Parents As Teachers, an early childhood education program, gives parents the skills and knowledge necessary to raise competent, confident children. Proven effective by over a decade of independent evaluation, PAT is offered by school districts and community programs in 48 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Mississippi's most well established PAT site is in Forrest County, operated by the Petal School District's Parenting Center. Communities in Schools (CIS) is the nation's most effective dropout prevention program. Through school-community partnerships, CIS provides services to at-risk students according to the locally determined need. The Greenwood-Leflore CIS partnership offers a working model for other Mississippi communities. For information on upcoming PAT and CIS training opportunities in Mississippi, contact the Forum office at 601-355-4911 or email msforum@mfcf.org. 1. McMillen,
Sally G. Motherhood in the Old South, Louisiana State University Press,
Baton Rouge, 1989, p. 6. i. AFDC: Aid
to Families with Dependent Children, the income support program most
commonly known as welfare. |
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